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by Imperial fatherland dispatch office. . 101 reads.

The Spring of Nations: The 1848 Revolutions

The immediate causes of the 1848 Revolutions are well-documented (see: they're the same as irl just go on wikipedia or something), so they won't be explored in detail here.
January 1848

Sicily revolts, the first of many. King Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies is driven back to Naples and a provisional republic is established across the whole island with the exception of Messina. Revolts of this scale were unusual but most European states had paid little notice- revolts were relatively common in Italy and it was expected that this would be suppressed soon.
February 1848

Bavarian conservatives organise a public demonstration against King Ludwig I, the first in the German states. They cite his liberal-minded mistress Lola Montez, who influenced the passing of several minor reforms and angered the aristocracy and the church. Liberal students take advantage of the situation and demand further changes. Unwilling to agree, the King abdicates in favour of his son, Maximilian II.

France explodes into armed rebellion out of the relative peace of the immediate post-Napoleonic period, taking the absolutist regimes of Europe by surprise. In the space of under a month, working and middle class protestors force the abdication of King Louis-Philippe and the abolition of the Orleanist July Monarchy. Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte is declared President, beginning a period of armed insurrections against Ancien Regimes all across the continent.

March 1848

King Charles Albert of Sardinia-Piedmont agrees to the demands of liberals who had been agitating for several years now, inaugurating the Albertine Constitution.

Inspired by France and citing the heavy-handed rule of Prince Metternich among their grievances, students mount a large demonstration in Vienna. Emperor Ferdinand (on the advice of Metternich) orders troops to crush the rebellion, killing several and inflaming the protestors further. Working class demonstrators join the students and the Diet of Lower Austria demands Metternich's resignation. Isolated, he resigns and leaves for England.

In Pest, news of unrest in Vienna and Paris arrives, prompting Lajos Kossuth, a leader of the Hungarian liberals, to demand parliamentary government for Hungary while stressing loyalty to the Habsburgs. The speech is read aloud to gatherings as far as Vienna itself, and Kossuth becomes leader of the Hungarian movement. The Pest revolutionaries declare an end to all censorship and their strength forces Hungary's Imperial governor to accept all their demands.

Vienna's influence on revolutionaries elsewhere spreads to the rest of Germany, where Baden is the first state to agree to the Märzforderungen (demands of March) following surprisingly high popular support for liberal constitutionalism. Other notable states accepting the demands in quick succession include Württemberg, Hesse-Darmstadt and Nassau. In Berlin, Frederick William IV verbally yields to all the protestors' demands and declares that "Prussia is to be merged forthwith with Germany." Police warnings against public demonstrations go ignored and on the 13th, the army charges a group of demonstrators near the Tiergarten. Five days later, a large demonstration occurs and, fearing reprisals from the army, the protestors erect barricades in the city. Fighting ensues for several hours until the King orders the army to withdraw. In the next few days, he proceeds through the city's streets to attend a mass funeral of the civilian casualties, wearing the revolutionary tricolour of red, black, gold.

The King also releases Polish prisoners and agitators, who at the mass funeral speak of the desire of a free and united Germany co-operating with an independent Poland against the Russian Empire. The released prisoners form a Polish Legion with Prussian armament and backing. Prominent emigres in France, who fled Congress Poland after the failed 1830 November Uprising, return east to join forces with the Poles. Berliners themselves also petition to join the Legion, and they are reluctantly accepted by its leader, Ludwik Mieroslawski, who fears infighting and reprisals from the Germans in the future. In Poznan, where the Legion arrives, the Polish National Committee is formed and petitions Berlin for regional autonomy- the removal of Prussian soldiers and rule of Posen by Poles. These demands were conducive with those of the Berlin revolutionaries, who wanted to co-operate with the Poles to expel the Russians from Poland. Frederick William IV verbally agrees to the demands of the Poles for more autonomy- privately he tells his military staff to prepare for a repression of the Polish movement.

Milan follows suit on the 18th, with Metternich's fall. The city's Archbishop backs the rebellion and a provisional government is formed. Field Marshal Radetzky, experienced and energetic, recognises the difficulty of besieging the city centre and withdraws to the Quadrilateral. King Charles Albert of Sardinia offers his support to the Milanese on the condition they join the Kingdom. They enthusiastically accept, and the first formal war of the period is declared between Austria and Sardinia-Piedmont.

The entire region of Venetia (with the exception of Verona, garrisoned by Radetzky's forces) then declares independence and the Republic of San Marco is formed.

In late March, Hungary's first responsible government is formed by Lajos Batthyany, including eminent liberals and agitators such as Kossuth, Szechenyi and Deak.

Following the death of King Christian VIII in Denmark, liberals demonstrate in Copenhagen and force the new King, Frederick VII to adopt a constitution and liberal democratic government. However, it did not extend to Schleswig-Holstein. Seeking to centralize the region directly into Denmark proper, the liberals meet opposition from pan-German demonstrators, supported by the German states, beginning the First Schleswig War.

A German National Committee is formed in Posen, largely made up of officials loyal to Frederick William IV. Tensions begin to flare up between Germans and Poles in Greater Poland, which by now has been almost entirely engulfed by revolutionary spirit.

On the 31st, the Frankfurt Parliament opens in the Paulskirche, electing the compromise candidate Heinrich von Gagern as Assembly President. It calls for free elections and an assembly to represent all of Germany- initially, all the German states agree.

April 1848

King Charles Albert of Sardinia crosses the River Mincio, beginning a virtually unopposed month-long advance into Austrian territory. He petitions to the other Italian states to assist him, and they send their support. Together they score a victory at Goito, which Radetzky had attempted to relieve. Following this, however, Pope Pius IX and Ferdinand II give their orders to withdraw. This order is disobeyed by several generals and brigades, who continue to fight for Italian sovereignty. The advance is further complicated by the King's overcautiousness, which gives Radetzky time to re-consolidate his forces as the situation for the Habsburgs continues to deteriorate elsewhere.

In Iasi, Moldavia, liberals present a petition-proclamation containing 35 points to Prince Mihail Sturdza, who accepts all but two of them. Unexpectedly they demand acceptance of the entire petition, prompting the Prince to flee to the army barracks and begin a crackdown on any dissent.

The April laws are passed by the Hungarian Parliament and receive royal assent. Hungary by now is tied to Austria in all but name under the Austrian Archduke as Palatine. The Parliament makes further demands to Austria to spend all taxes raised from Hungary in Hungary, and to grant control of the Hungarian regiments to the Hungarian Parliament.

Sentiment against Prussian government by Poles in West Prussia, Torun and Chelmno threatens to boil over into violence, but local leaders manage to keep ahold of the situation to prevent a crackdown. In Posen itself, the King's declaration of soon-to-be-implemented autonomy is taken by the Poles to mean an immediate restoration- some disorganized groups begin to requisition Prussian state treasuries and dismantle symbols of the Prussian state, but Mieroslawski regains control of the situation- and Prussian tolerance. Regardless, the Poznan Parliament announces that it will not join any German Confederation, drawing the ire- but not action- of Berlin, still wary of revolutionary sentiment at home. The new Royal Civil Commissioner for the Province of Posen, Karl Wilhelm von Willisen, was sympathetic to the Polish cause and was willing to grant concessions, but was aware of possible reprisals from the central government. He moves very little in either direction, preserving the momentum of the Polish movement.

The Frankfurt Parliament is beset by debates over the nature of a united Germany- unlike in France, which already had an existing national template, the only precedent for Germany was the unwieldy and unpopular Holy Roman Empire. Questions over the size of the new state (was Austria entitled to the union given it was largely non-German?), the relevance of the crown (both hereditary and elected monarchies were considered, alongside declaring a republic) and the degree of centralization dogged the Parliament in its first month of existence.

French liberals from all walks of life, in solidarity with their counterparts in the rest of Europe, send material and financial resources to revolutions across the continent. In some cases they volunteer to join the citizens' brigades.

May 1848

Superficially, the revolution begins to quieten in Prussia. The Poles exercise a remarkable self-restraint in not stepping on Berlin's toes and the German reformers appear to be satisfied by the King's apparent sincerity. Rhenish Prussia remains relatively quiet, despite retaining the Napoleonic codes quashing the power of the clergy and nobility. Feeling secure, the King's earlier promises of support for the revolutionaries are set aside, and his true colours as a conservative are shown- he orders the Prussian Army to crush revolutionaries in the Bavarian Palatinate and Hannover, using the Rhineland as a springboard. Debates rage on in Frankfurt with little progress.

Revolt breaks out in Saxony. Already a constitutional government, King Frederick Augustus II concedes and grants further reforms guaranteeing greater representation and liberties to the kingdom.

In Bohemia, Czech intellectuals call for greater representation and autonomy for their nation within the Habsburg Empire. This is followed shortly by the formation of the Polish and Ruthenian National Committees in Galicia and Lodomeria, with the former beginning communications with its counterpart in Posen. Krakow, Prague and Lwow become centres of the pan-Slavic revolutionary movement. Meanwhile, Batthyany insists that Austrian troops in Hungary must abide by Hungarian laws- Vienna concedes. He begins to organise local Hungarian forces, militias and citizen brigades into a formal army.

Seeking to score an impressive victory in time for the next session of the Chamber of Deputies, King Charles Albert angles for battle with Field Marshal Radetzky. At Santa Lucia, the poor synchronisation of the Italian units is shown despite just edging out a victory and forcing Radetzky to withdraw from Verona where he waits for reinforcements. Unfortunately for him, those reinforcements are being constantly harassed by Daniele Manin's Venetian forces. Fortunately for him, Manin is a rather incompetent leader and is set back by a chronic illness which makes him absent at crucial times.

Across Europe, the revolutions appear to reach a stalemate, not moving much forward but not moving backwards either. As Berlin and Vienna begin to stabilise, the liberals' momentum appears to be slowing.

June 1848

Revolt breaks out in Wallachia after Fratia, a secret society calling for Romanian modernisation and sovereignty, releases a proclamation similar to that in Moldavia. They seize army bases across the country and begin close co-operation with their Moldavian counterparts who, until now, had been largely suppressed by Prince Mihail Sturdza's crackdowns. A revolutionary government is formed at the release of the Proclamation of Islaz, a small port town on the Danube with some commercial significance. Support from Orthodox priests (including the popular Sapca of Celei) bolsters its legitimacy. The government petitions Prince Bibescu of Wallachia to recognize the Proclamation as a blueprint for a constitution and "to listen to the voice of the motherland and place himself at the head of this great accomplishment." Finding little support among the populace or among the armed forces, he abdicates and flees the country, leading to the formation of a Provisional Government. This is the second successful regime change in Europe after that in France. With a new Constitution, the Regulamentul Organic (Organic Regulation), imposed by the Russians, is effectively disbanded- the Russian consul leaves for Transylvania. Alarmed, Russian forces prepare to mobilize against this direct assault on their sphere of influence. The Moldavian revolutionaries then exhaust their remaining strength on usurping power from Prince Mihail Sturdza with the assistance of the Provisional Government- by the end of the month, the unification of the Danubian Principalities is declared and a united Romania is born.

In Croatia, Josip Jelacic petitions the Austrian court to be appointed Ban. Believing him to be loyal to the conservative cause, and to be used as a useful weapon against Hungary (of which Croatia was a dependency), Emperor Ferdinand consents. Almost immediately, he severs the Kingdom of Croatia's ties to Hungary and the Batthyany government, satisfying Vienna, which lets its guard down.

The Prague Slavic Congress is held, largely attended by Austroslavists who believed the future lay in greater autonomy within the Austrian Empire. Whilst there were deep divisions among and within the various attending nationalities, unity was achieved after the Congress was cut short by Austrian crackdown on demonstrations outside. The goal of the Congress and the Revolutionaries now is a complete re-organisation of the Habsburg state- independence remains a fringe movement.

These developments spur the Vienna revolutionaries on, and the Austrian court is forced to flee to Innsbruck, where they can oversee the military situation in Lombardy-Venetia more easily. Croatian and Slavic officers and soldiers petition the court to join Jelacic, who is summoned to Innsbruck to order them to stay put so that King Charles Albert can be repelled. To their surprise and dismay, he refuses the order and Radetzky's forces are stretched even thinner.

The Duchy of Parma joins the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont after a successful plebiscite in May. Lombard and Milanese citizens vote overwhelmingly in favour as well, but are prevented by the conflict. Despite a lack of reinforcements and the draining of his manpower by Jelacic's forces, Radetzky holds firm in Verona and does not withdraw. After the tactical disaster at Goito, Charles Albert remains still as well.

July 1848

Lajos Kossuth begins a whistlestop tour around Hungary, speaking at towns of every size and raising support for the Honved, the Hungarian Army, as war with Croatia becomes imminent. Batthyany opens negotiations with Jelacic, but these break down after both accuse each other of being separatists. Mobilization continues.

Radetzky petitions the court to quash the Republic of San Marco before any counter-offensives against Charles Albert can take place. They grant this offer and reinforcements bound for Verona are redirected to the Venetia region. Poor communication and leadership on Daniele Manin's part between the Piedmontese and Venetian forces leads to failure on Charles Albert's part to continue the offensive.

Russia begins its offensive into Romania, but meets popular opposition from the Provisional Government and its advance is slow. Knowing that its long-term position is untenable, the Government seeks Ottoman support and sends Ion Ghica to Constantinople to emphasise that the new regime will continue to recognise Ottoman suzerainty. Sultan Abdulmecid I, an ambitious reformer, accepts and sends warnings to Russia of possible intervention.

The Frankfurt Parliament creates a Central Power to carry out its resolutions, and appoints Archduke John of Austria its Regent. Real power remains in Gagern's hands, however, as the Archduke viewed his role as ceremonial. Utilising his influence and popularity, Gagern lays one of the central debates of the Frankfurt Parliament to rest- on the 14th, it agrees that the new Germany shall be a hereditary monarchy.

Prussia's invasion of Denmark draws the ire of Britain, Sweden and Russia, who all lodge formal complaints. Believing his position to be secure, the King presses on.

August 1848

The invasion of San Marco begins. Noticing the distraction, Charles Albert successfully dislodges Radetzky from Verona, and he is forced to retreat into the mountain passes of South Tyrol, giving Piedmont control of all of Lombardy. Meanwhile, Modena and Lucca both join Sardinia by plebiscite. Radetzky is re-assigned to Styria to oversee the suppression of the Venetian Revolt, as the Italian forces re-consolidate. The natural defences afforded by South Tyrol are much sturdier than in Verona, and a stalemate ensues.

Innsbruck orders the Batthyany government not to raise an army, despite Jelacic's overtures. Kossuth's efforts bear fruit and the Honved soon numbers over 150,000 soldiers, though mostly untrained and poorly equipped.

Russian forces stop advancing into Moldavia after the Ottoman ultimatum. Whilst Tsar Nicholas I was confident of a Russian victory, he hadn't expected to devote so many resources to Romania and had to consider his options.

The Frankfurt Parliament creates a Ministry of War and forms the German Confederate Army. It does not participate in the invasion of Schleswig-Holstein however, as Gagern takes the hostility from Britain, Russia and Sweden seriously. Prussian reprisals against revolutionaries in the west of Germany continue, further exacerbating the rift between the nationalists and Prussia.

September 1848

Manin's forces fare even more poorly than expected against the lightning offensive of Radetzky's army. After the fall of Venice itself on the 22nd, the Republic of San Marco is the first revolutionary regime to collapse. With their forces in Italy thoroughly exhausted, Austrian forces sue for peace negotiations. Charles Albert agrees, satisfied with his gains and fearing losses on his now exposed and underdefended eastern flank.

Jelacic occupies Murakoz and engages the Hungarian Army, but is checked by forces led by General Janos Moga. Batthyany travels to Innsbruck to seek support from Emperor Ferdinand but is turned back empty-handed, hardening the attitude of the Hungarian radicals towards compromise. Count Franz Phillip von Lamberg is appointed by the Austrians to oversee the entire Hungarian Army, but the Diet refuses and he is denied entry to the Parliament building in Pest. He is shortly afterwards lynched by overzealous civilians, infuriating the Austrian court, who announce a dissolution of the Hungarian Diet and appoint Jelacic Regent of Hungary.

Infighting between Czech and pan-German revolutionaries in Bohemia breaks out, after Frantisek Palacky- President of the Prague Slavic Congress and figurehead of the Czech National Revival- declares that the Czechs will have no part in a pan-German union. Prince Alfred I of Windisch-Gratz, a prominent Bohemian nobleman, takes advantage of the situation and begins to crack down on the revolutionaries.

Swedish support for the Danes bogs down the Prussian offensive into Schleswig-Holstein. Frederick William IV decides eventually to sue for peace after British and Russian grievances become more hostile, damaging his reputation at the expense of the Frankfurt Parliament. Many of its central debates go unresolved, however.

October 1848

The Treaty of Novara is signed between Sardinia-Piedmont and Austria, a decisive victory for Charles Albert and the cause of the Italian nation. Austria recognises Piedmontese sovereignty over Lombardy, Modena and Lucca, a near-doubling in size of territory and a springboard for further campaigns into the rest of Italy. He returns to cheering crowds in Turin, but almost immediately faces private criticism from his ministers, influential figures and even his own son for his overcautiousness in the war, the loss of Venetia and his poor organization of forces leading to higher casualties than anticipated. Regardless, Sardinia-Piedmont became the first revolutionary state to successfully consolidate and maintain its sovereignty. Radetzky wheels his forces around to suppress the Vienna revolutionaries once and for all, and at the end of the month the court is re-established in the capital.

Jelacic advances as Szekesfehervar and occupies it, but overstretches and is beaten again by General Moga nearby at Lake Velence. He retreats back to the city and awaits reinforcements from the Italian front.

The Treaty of Lubeck, signed between Denmark, Sweden and Prussia and mediated by Britain and Russia, is signed, preserving Danish sovereignty over Schleswig-Holstein. It is a humiliation for Frederick William IV, but the Frankfurt Parliament is unable to capitalise on these successes and continues its debates.

November 1848

The Vienna revolution is crushed- one of the Lower House's Deputies, Robert Blum, a figurehead of the democratic left, is arrested by Prince Alfred and court-martialled despite Radetzky's and the Emperor's objections, citing his parliamentary immunity. After his execution, it becomes clear to the Frankfurt Parliament how large the new Germany can be- and it can no longer include the Habsburg realms. The second of the great central debates is concluded, but none of the German princes appear ready to accept the sovereignty of Germany as the final, most significant debate remains unresolved- the degree of centralization afforded to the state.

Emperor Ferdinand appoints conservatives to his cabinet, including Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg as head of government. Believing that a new, more headstrong sovereign would no longer be bound to the previous concessions made to the liberals, he convinces Ferdinand to abdicate in favour of the young Archduke Franz Josef, who declares the Hungarian Diet and the March Laws invalid.

The Polish National Committee in Poznan, stifled by the King's rollbacks and fearful of reprisals similar to those in the rest of the country, secretly petitions Gagern to declare Posen and other Polish-inhabited regions- outside of the German Confederation- not to be part of the new German state. He agrees.

December 1848

Slovak forces led by Ludovit Stur rebel against the Hungarian government after Kossuth openly rejects the notion of minority rights- while not opposed to them in principle, Kossuth feared that the end result of minority rights would be the dismemberment of a Greater Hungarian state, and he did not believe an ethnically and linguistically based Hungary could be viable. They seize Pressburg on behalf of the Austrian state, bolstering not only the Slovak national movement but that of the Czechs as well.

Meanwhile, Jelacic and imperial forces led by Radetzky begin their march towards Pest. The revolutionary Diet retreats eastward to Debrecen, taking the Crown of St. Stephen with them.

Repressions in west Germany continue. Feeling that his position is largely secured, Frederick William IV dissolves the Prussian National Assembly that had been formed when the initial wave of revolutions was at its height. Fearing that the rights granted to them by Napoleon were now under threat, almost the entirety of the Rhenish Prussia breaks out in revolt. An independent Rhenish Republic is declared, and Prussian forces, caught off-guard, are sandwiched in many places in between the new revolutionaries and the older ones under the nominal command of the smaller German states. The Frankfurt Parliament loses its most powerful backer in the Prussian King, even if that support had only been superficial.

Sensing opportunity, the Polish National Committee declares the Greater Polish Republic, and publicly petitions the Parliament not to be included in the new German state. Thanks to Gagern's efforts and a prevailing opinion that some concessions must be made for the good of Germany, Parliament ratifies this with surprising speed. With Prussia severely weakened on two fronts, several of the German duchies and principalities openly declare their support for the Frankfurt Parliament and its activities, including Baden, Wurttemberg, Nassau, Hesse-Darmstadt, Hesse-Kassel and Hannover. Bavaria and Mecklenburg-Schwerin are among the notable exceptions, fearing reprisals from their larger neighbours.

Incensed, Frederick William IV appeals to Austria for help but unsurprisingly they cite the Hungarian situation as a major concern. He rallies the Junkers and other conservatives in Berlin and eastern Prussia to try and regain control of the situation.

January 1849

Imperial forces led by Jelacic and Prince Alfred enter Pest. Batthyany and those around him resign from the Cabinet, leaving Kossuth and Szechenyi along with their supporters to continue the failing Hungarian cause.

Tsar Nicholas I decides that he cannot wait any longer. He orders a full scale invasion of Hungary, Romania and Greater Poland in order to suppress the liberals and, in the case of the latter two, possible threats to his sovereignty. To his surprise, he is condemned by Britain for failing to consult Prussia and Austria before doing so, given he is technically assaulting Prussian and Austrian territory. In Hungary's case, he has to mark through Habsburg-controlled territory to reach the Hungarians. To his even greater surprise, Prussia and Austria, fearful that Russia may be taking advantage of their weakness to seize their territory from under their noses, explicitly reject Russian help a few days later. Unwilling to lose face, the Tsar presses on, putting him in the unenviable position of being at war with both the revolutionary and conservative forces of Europe. Parts of Galicia-Lodomeria, including Lwow and Krakow, are essentially occupied by Russia in the process, leading the Ruthenian and Polish National Committees there to organise popular resistance.

Mieroslawski begins to agitate for Congress Poland to rise up to repel the Russian forces. Ottoman forces, massing on the Russian border for several months now, begin to advance into Bessarabia, though the advance is slow as both forces are concentrated here and poorly led.

February 1849

After about a year, the situation in France stabilises under the new republican regime led by Bonaparte. He intends to declare himself the figurehead of the Spring of Nations, but his ministers privately tell him that this would draw unfavourable Napoleonic comparisons. Regardless, he pledges his verbal support to all revolutionary governments across Europe, and threatens Russia with war if it does not withdraw.

The Frankfurt Parliament offers King William I of Wurttemberg the German crown, realising that both Frederick William IV and Franz Josef would probably not be too enthusiastic in adopting what they had jointly referred to as a 'crown from the gutter'. Baden, Nassau, Hesse-Darmstadt, Hesse-Kassel and Frankfurt itself all pledge fealty to the nascent German Empire. He immediately seeks reconciliation with the Prussian and Austrian monarchs, and, in no position to be making more enemies, both agree to a ceasefire despite not officially being at war.

Joint Ottoman-Romanian forces repel Russia from Moldavia. They cross the Prut River into Bessarabia proper, but otherwise make little progress.

Britain urges calm across Europe, fearing the complete deterioration of the Congress of Vienna. It largely goes unheeded.

Croat, Slovak and Czech forces stall their advance into Hungarian territory due to the Russian setback- they leave the defence of Galicia-Lodomeria to the imperial forces led by Prince Alfred and Emperor Franz Josef, but the terrain in the east of the country is rough and infrastructure poor. Fighting is bitter and gains are meagre.

King Charles Albert, now confident of his consolidated position and dominance on the Italian peninsula, secretly pledges financial aid and troops to the Provisional Government of Sicily. They begin their assault on Messina, the last Bourbon stronghold on the island.

March 1849

Russia begins to advance into German-populated Prussian territory, especially the provinces of East and West Prussia. In Galicia-Lodomeria, Ternopil falls after an intense week-long siege. Prince Alfred requests diversions from Hungary, and the Bohemians comply, giving the Kossuth government space to breathe. Realising that any hope of compromise with the Habsburgs is over, he formally declares Hungarian independence from Austria and a Hungarian Republic, with himself as Regent-President. The Honved begins to push back the invasion and liberates Pest.

The Rhenish Republic pledges fealty to the Wurttemberger German Empire, with some trepidation for fear of souring future relations with Prussia. Regardless, Parliament accepts the Rhenish accession enthusiastically, securing the state's economic and military situations. With the Rhineland now formally out of Prussian hands, several other German states in the west agree to join the union, with the exception of Hanover, ruled by the stalwart conservative King Ernst Augustus and bothered little by only a few minor demonstrations. A coastline remains out of Germany's reach.

April 1849

Mieroslawski's efforts bear fruit, and the entirety of Congress Poland revolts against the Tsarist regime for the second time in under twenty years. Caught off guard much like their Prussian counterparts, Nicholas I orders a hasty retreat from Prussian and Austrian-occupied territory but it is already too late. Adam Czartoryski, a prominent Polish advocate and nobleman who had fled Russia following the 1830 November Uprising, travels back to Warsaw from Poznan and begins to organise a Second Commonwealth with the revolutionaries.

Celebration for the Austrian court is rather short-lived, however, as Kossuth's reclamation of Hungary continues, though slowed. Bohemian forces are permitted to advance over the Carpathians and surprise the Hungarian forces from behind.

The crowning of a monarch from a relatively small state in William of Wurttemberg lays to rest the final of the Frankfurt Parliament's central debates- the degree of centralisation. An overbearing, dominant state such as Prussia or Austria would have formed the impetus to centralise the state under their direction, but this way the Emperor was merely 'first among equals'- the new state would be a confederation, in which the individual free states, republics and principalities would retain their internal sovereignty whilst subject to the German state to a degree greater than the Holy Roman Empire or German Confederations that preceded them, but lesser than in the other revolutionary states which had zealously embraced strong central government- France, Denmark, Sardinia-Piedmont and Romania.

May 1849

Joint Romanian-Ottoman armies seize all of Bessarabia. Prussian and Austrian forces, protected by the bulwark of the nascent Polish Commonwealth, retake all of their previously occupied territory (with the notable exception of the Greater Polish Republic, which remains independent- given the circumstances, Frederick William IV reasoned that he couldn't really handle more enemies).

Czartoryski forms a Provisional Government in Warsaw, to much fanfare. He immediately opens negotiations with Mieroslawski to annex the Greater Polish Republic.

Many of the west Thuringian German states accede to the German Empire.

Bohemian forces assault Hungarian positions in Bucovina and the Carpathian Rus. By this point, the efforts of the Czech, Slovak and Croatian national movements were being concentrated into a common anti-Hungarian cause, used to great effect by the Austrian court. Kossuth withdraws in the east and his advance in the west is checked by Jelacic, who begins a counteroffensive towards Pest.

Recognising that he had bitten off far more than he could chew, and wary of the threat of French intervention on top of everything else, Tsar Nicholas I agrees to peace negotiations.

June 1849

Surrounded and finally out of distractions, Kossuth's Hungarian Republic surrenders to Austrian forces. The Austrian Empire is whole again.

The Greater Polish Republic is merged with Congress Poland's Provisional Government, with Czartoryski at its head. The Second Polish Commonwealth is declared.

Jelacic, Palacky and Stur return to a hero's welcome to their respective nations. They very politely remind Vienna of the wonderful favour they just did on their behalf. Franz Josef takes note- Prince Felix does not.

Peace negotiations open in Lille, moderated by France and Britain, and attended by representatives from Austria, the Ottoman Empire, Russia, Romania, Prussia, Poland and Germany, among other minor states.

July 1849

The Treaty of Lille is signed on the 26th of July, 1849, formally ending most of the conflicts in Europe. The independence of the Polish Commonwealth is recognised, as is the sovereignty of the Grand Principality of Romania, though under the protection of the Ottoman Sultan. Russia loses Congress Poland and Bessarabia to them, respectively. Additionally, Prussian sovereignty over Greater Poland is ceded, though Austria retains its Polish lands in Galicia-Lodomeria.

Slightly more thorny was the issue of the German Empire. Whilst Prussia was willing to accept the loss of the Rhineland and the existence of a German state, it objected to the title of 'Emperor' (both Frederick William IV and Franz Josef again declared it a 'crown from the gutter') and the assumption of suzerainty over all Germans. Knowing their negotiating positions were relatively weak, the German delegation agreed to the terms and adopted the official name of the West German Confederation instead.

Messina falls to the Provisional Government of Sicily. With polite nudging by Charles Albert, Ferdinand II agrees to cede control of the island to the now-Republic of Sicily, with close ties to Sardinia-Piedmont.

August 1849

Back in Berlin, a slightly bitter Frederick William IV abrogates the remaining liberal concessions he had granted and restores absolutist rule in the remaining parts of Prussia he does own.

With Ottoman backing, the liberal Ion Ghica becomes Grand Prince of Romania. Sultan Abdulmecid uses the momentum of his victory to pass further westernizing reforms back in Constantinople, though he still meets some opposition, especially from Balkan nationalists that didn't get to see their nations freed.

Jelacic, Palacky and Stur appear simultaneously before the Austrian court, petitioning for greater autonomy for their nations in recognition of their services. Not really in the mood for another civil war, Princes Felix zu Schwarzenberg and Albert von Windisch-Gratz both agree begrudgingly, though Franz Josef is more receptive to the idea. The Lands of the Bohemian Crown get their own Parliament and autonomous government, as does the Kingdom of Croatia, now severed from the Lands of the Crown of St. Stephen. Slovakia is formally severed from Hungary as well, under an autonomous Grand Duchy of Nitra and Ungvar. These autonomous regions are far more liberal-democratic than the regime established by the central government elsewhere, which under Schwarzenberg and Bach return to absolutist principles in a vein similar to King Frederick William IV. The Spring of Nations concludes.

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