President of Guamá

The President of Guama (Spanish: Presidente de Guamá) is the head of state and government of the Republic of Guama, and commander-in-chief of the armed forces.

The president has a duty to enforce laws, to convene the Congress, the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Congress, to appoint government officers, to appoint court justices, and to grant pardons.

History

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The first known heads of government on the island were the caciques, the tribal chiefs of the native Taíno peoples who inhabited the island before the arrival of the Spanish. It is believed that, due to the largely pacifist culture of the Taíno, that the cacique rank was established through democratic means.

Spanish colonial era

Spanish conquistador Carlos de Huesca established himself as the island's first captain-general (governor) when the Spanish colonized the island in the 16th century. As a Spanish colony, capitains-general were appointed by the King of Spain. As such, they were in charge of the island's development and wealth, and were responsible for reporting the colony's status to the government in Spain. This arrangement remained in place until the transfer of Guama from Spain to the United States in 1898.

United States colonial era

In 1898, amid the Spanish–American War, Guama was invaded by the United States. After the war ended, Spain was forced to cede Guama (along Puerto Rico, Cuba, and the Philippines) to the United States under the Treaty of Paris. Therefore, Guama entered the twentieth century under the military rule of the United States with officials—including a military governor—appointed by the President of the United States.

In 1900, President William McKinley signed the Foraker Act which established limited civilian government in Guama. The new government had a civilian (rather than military) governor and an executive council appointed by the President. In addition, Guama had its first legislature with the establishment of an elected Congress. Furthermore, there was also—for the first time—a resident, independent judicial system with a Supreme Court. The first civilian governor of the island under U.S. rule was Russel Campbell Alexander.

Despite U.S. rule being favorable to Spanish rule to much of the population, there was still a widespread resentment at being a colony; especially of a nation with so different a language and culture. Amid ongoing political pressure at home and abroad, as well as continuous insurgencies against U.S. occupation, President Theodore Roosevelt ordered U.S. forces to oversee the drafting and implementing of a new constitution. Elections for the first president and independent legislature took place on March 4, 1902 and saw Eurico Castillo, Sr. being elected president and his Guaman National Party sweeping legislative elections. Guama officially became independent on May 1, 1902 (although the United States would maintain presence and influence for some decades to come).

Powers

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The president is head of state and the head of government. He or she has the power to veto legislation the Congress wishes to pass, though this can be overridden by a two-thirds majority in each house. The president also has the power to appoint the members of their Cabinet, senior government and public sector officials, judges of the Supreme Court, as well as lower court judges with appointments requiring the approval of the Senate. Finally, the president is also the commander-in-chief of the Defense Forces and the chief diplomat of the country.

Annual Address

The constitution requires the president give an annual address to the Congress to give an account of the state of the nation as well as to make recommendations for the budget and legislative program for the year ahead. This has become known as the El Discurso Anual ("The Annual Address") and, since 1979, has taken place after the opening of the Congress towards the start of the year.

Eligibility

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Pursuant to Article IV of the Constitution, the president must be a natural-born citizen of Guama, resident for ten consecutive years prior (not including vacations), and at least 35-years-old at the time of the election. While the Constitution states a person must be 35 to be elected president, there is technically no age limit to serve as president. Indeed, one president—Eurico Castillo, Jr.—served as president from the age of 34 when, in 1917, he succeeded to (rather than being elected to) the presidency.

Election

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The president is popularly elected to a four-year term which can be renewed once. Prior to 1978 there were no term limits and prior to 1932 the president was elected by an electoral college. Elections take place on the first Tuesday after the first Monday of November in even-numbered years that are not leap years. Elections for the president take place alongside elections for all the Chamber of Representatives and one-third of the Senate. Elections are conducted by plurality vote whereby the candidate with the most votes, even if not an absolute majority, wins. Voting is not compulsory.

The president's term begins on January 2 of the year following his or her election and ends on January 2 four years later (unless the office is vacated earlier via resignation, impeachment or death). The dating of elections—a Tuesday in November—is directly lifted from the United States Constitution and is a carryover from U.S. rule kept because the first Monday in November is a public holiday in Guama. The president-elect is required to swear an oath upon taking office. In the early days of independence this was done before the Congress. From 1932 until 1969 and again from 1979, the oath has been administered in a public inauguration ceremony held on the steps of El Capitolio, the capitol building. It is usually part of a wider celebration marking the incoming administration.

If a person succeeds to the presidency and serves more than half a term (i.e. over 2 years), then it is counted as one of their two terms. This has happened to only president to date—Antonio Martínez—when he succeeded to the presidency upon the death of the incumbent, Hernán Blanco, in 1991. Blanco died just ten months into his 4-year term and, as a result, Martínez served over 3 years as president. He was elected president in his own right in 1994 but, owing to his serving the majority of Blanco's term, was unable to seek re-election in 1998.

Succession

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Upon the death, resignation, or removal from office (by impeachment and conviction) of a sitting president, the Vice President of Guama succeeds to the presidency for the remainder of that four-year term. If there is no vice president to succeed, then the President of the Senate succeeds and, if that office is also vacant, the President of the Chamber of Representatives succeeds. If there is nobody to succeed the presidency, the constitution allows the Congress to hold a contingent election to elect a president and vice president to serve out that four-year term.

There have been three occasions where a vice president has succeeded to the presidency: in 1910 when Bernardo Molina succeeded upon the resignation of Eurico Castillo, Sr.; in 1917 when Juan Molina succeeded upon the impeachment and removal from office of Miguel de León; and when Antonio Martínez succeeded upon the death of Hernán Blanco in 1991.

There has been one occasion where the vice-presidency was vacant when the presidency also became vacant, thus requiring the President of the Senate to succeed: in 1917 when Juan Molina resigned as president with with no vice president so Eurico Castillo, Jr. assumed the presidency.

There has also been a single occasion where the vice-presidency and President of the Senate were vacant when the presidency also became vacant, thus requiring the President of the Chamber of Representatives to succeed: in 1923 when Eurico Castillo, Jr.'s whole administration resigned and Reynaldo Ortiz assumed the presidency.

There have been four occasions where all offices of state were vacant (or considered vacant) and the Congress held a contingent election to choose a new president and vice president: in 1930 when Esteban Castillo overthrew the government of Reynaldo Ortiz; in 1972 when the military overthrew the government of Pepe Gómez; in 1975 when a popular revolt overthrew the government of Manuel Borrego; and in 1977 when the military overthrew the government of Mauricio Hernández.

List of presidents of Guama

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Notes

1. Eurico Castillo, Sr.—founder of the Guaman National Party (Partido Nacional Guameño; PNG) and leader of the independence movement—resigned after becoming terminally ill. He would die 60 days later on April 1. His Vice President, Bernardo Molina, succeeded him. This sparked an intense internal rivalry within the PNG.

2. As the infighting within the PNG reached its peak, President Miguel de León was accused of corruption, embezzlement, and abuse of power. The anti-de León dominated Congress voted to impeach and remove León from office on March 27, 1917; making him the only president ever removed from office through impeachment. Despite this, de León was not imprisoned and was only stripped of office and barred from holding office again.

3. De León was succeeded by his vice president and brother-in-law, Juan Molina; also the younger brother of 2nd president, Bernardo Molina. The younger Molina was far less effective than his older brother and he resigned when it became clear he would be ousted in a similar fashion to de León. As the presidency and vice presidency were now vacant, the President of the Senate—Eurico Castillo, Jr.—assumed the presidency; to date the youngest person ever to serve as president, aged 34.

4. September Revolution — Amid a deep economic depression and ongoing political scandals, mass demonstrations break out when Eurico Castillo, Jr. announces he intends to run for a third term. Protestors storm El Capitolio (the Capitol Building) and Castillo and the Cabinet are forced to flee with the riots and protests only coming to an end when Castillo announces the mass resignation of his entire administration, finally ending PNG rule. With the presidency and vice-presidency vacant, the Chamber of Representatives elects Reynaldo "Papa" Ortiz as President.

5. El Castillato — The Great Depression sparks mass civil unrest in Guama. Unemployment passes 50% and there are critical shortages of food, medicine, and housing. The government is almost bankrupt after a decade of spending to prop up the economy. Having stoked anti-government sentiment via his newspaper La Voz, Esteban Castillo—younger son of former president Eurico Castillo, Sr., brother of former president Eurico Castillo, Jr., and son-in-law of former president Bernardo Molina—leads a U.S. supported coup d'état. Leaving the U.S. on April 1—the 20th anniversary of his father's death—it meets with a wave of public and military support. Ortiz flees Guama on June 13 and, the following day, the Congress recognizes Castillo as president; a presidency that would last for the next 30 years and become known as El Castillato ("The Castillo Era").

6. La Violencia — After Los Siete [Años] Socialistas ("the seven socialist years"), President José "Pepe" Gómez is overthrown and then assassinated by the military. General Manuel Borrego assumes the presidency—including a sham election in 1972—marking the beginning of the bloody 7-year civil war dubbed La Violencia ("The Violence").

7. La Violencia — General Borrego is overthrown in a spontaneous and violent revolution spurred by farmers and rural workers protesting economic conditions. They are joined by opportunistic urban revolutionaries who then storm government buildings, forcing Borrego to flee. Labor leader and civil rights activist Mauricio Hernández, a close ally of former president Gómez, assumes the presidency.

8. La Violencia — Amid continuous economic crises and social upheaval, President Hernández is ousted in a second military coup in just 5 years, led by Colonel Pablo Bermúdez who heads a military junta, the National Restoration Junta.

9. 1978 Revolution — A campaign of civil disobedience against military rule dubbed La Lucha ("The Struggle") culminates in General Bermúdez's ousting and the instigation of peace talks, a new constitution, and a return to civilian government. The 1978 elections are considered first free and fair elections in Guaman history by international standards. November's presidential election is between two prominent pro-democracy campaigners: Salvador Montoya, who brings together a collection of left-leaning parties and labor organizations under the Democratic Party banner; and Carlota Castillo, daughter of Esteban Castillo who brings together a number of right-leaning parties and business interests under the People's Party banner. Montoya narrowly triumphs in the close contest, winning by 0.5% of the vote and, at 72, becomes—at that time—the oldest person ever elected to the presidency. Castillo's acceptance of the result is often cited as the moment Guama "moved on" from its past and embraced democracy once and for all.

10. Isabel Suárez is elected president, becoming the second woman in the Americas to be elected head of state. Nicknamed La Dama Dura ("the Hard/Tough Lady") for her hardline politics and uncompromising style, she oversees profound economic and social liberalization of the nation which brings record economic growth and development. While supporters often dub these los buenos años ("the good years"), opponents criticize her presidency for widening economic disparity in Guama.

11. President Hernán Blanco suddenly dies in office at the age of 60. He is succeed by his vice president, Marta Jiménez. However, she chooses not to stand for election in her own right in the 1994 presidential election making her the only person since the restoration of democracy in 1978 to serve as president without being elected to the office.

12. Antonio Martínez becomes the first—and to date only—person under the 1978 Constitution to win the presidency in the first round of an election. Martínez won 54.2% of the vote in the first round of the 1994 presidential election.

13. In a tight contest, Leo de la Salle becomes the first black person elected president. The election, in which de la Salle defied polls and won on the second round by just 1.5% of the vote, was marred by controversy and is often dubbed la elección negra ("the black election"), both for de la Salle's victory and for the racist undertones of some campaigns.

14. After a contentious primary election which saw him unexpectedly win his party's nomination, at the age of 73, Jerónimo Cortés becomes the oldest person ever elected to the presidency. He became the first—and to date only—candidate to come runner-up in the first round but go on to win the second round in a presidential election. Despite concerns about health, he serves out his full term and leaves office in 2023 aged 77; the oldest person ever to serve as President of Guama.